Process-Based Therapy & Idionomic Analysis

Personalized psychology for lasting change.

Idionomic Analysis / Process-Based Therapy (PBT) represents the forefront of personalized clinical psychology. This approach combines deep individual insight with the power of evidence-based strategies. Rather than relying on diagnostic labels alone, idionomic analysis maps the unique patterns of a person's thoughts, emotions, behaviors, and biology — capturing how they dynamically interact over time.

Paired with PBT, the framework pinpoints core psychological processes: cognitive flexibility, emotional regulation, attention, motivation. The result is targeted interventions tailored to the person, not the disorder. Whether you're a clinician, researcher, or client, this precision-based model supports more effective, meaningful mental health care.

How Process-Based Therapy is Revolutionizing Mental Health Treatment

“How Process-Based Therapy is Revolutionizing Mental Health Treatment” — free training with Drs. Joseph Ciarrochi and Diana Hill (PESI). Click the thumbnail to watch on YouTube.

The key is to start with the individual (idiographic) and then only move to group-level (nomothetic) generalisations when appropriate. Idio-graphic + nom-ethetic = Idionomic.

Idionomic Flow Chart
  • Collect sufficient data at the lowest meaningful level.
    • This is Level 1 — individual participants, couples, families, or countries.
    • May involve intensive longitudinal data to capture meaningful within-unit patterns.
  • Build a model for each Level 1 unit.
    • For example, use a simple ARIMA model for each individual to estimate the link between a process (X) and an outcome (Y).
  • Evaluate whether aggregation is appropriate.
    • Use techniques like meta-analysis to assess the pooled effect size and the heterogeneity (e.g., I²).
  • Aggregate if appropriate. If the pooled effect accurately represents most individual data.
  • Explore functional subgroups if heterogeneity is high. Look for functionally homogeneous subgroups.

Type any word (author, title, year, topic) to filter. Click a tag to narrow by topic. All PDFs are hosted on josephciarrochi.com and open in a new tab.

2021 · Book
The Process-Based Therapy Workbook for Clinicians: Targeting the Core Processes in Psychological Change
Hofmann, S. G., Hayes, S. C., & Lorscheid, D. N. New Harbinger Publications.
2024 · Article · Intro reading
Process-Based Therapy: A common ground for understanding and utilizing therapeutic practices
Ciarrochi, J., Hernandez, C., Hill, D., Ong, C., Gloster, A., Levin, M., Yap, K., Fraser, M., Sahdra, B., Hofmann, S., & Hayes, S. Journal of Psychotherapy Integration, 34, 265–290.
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2022 · Article
Toward a unified framework for positive psychology interventions
Ciarrochi, J., Hayes, S. C., Oades, L. G., & Hofmann, S. G. Frontiers in Psychology, 12.
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Appendix available: detailed listing of positive-psychology processes and findings.
2023 · Chapter
From package to process: An evidence-based approach to processes of change in psychotherapy
Ciarrochi, J., Hayes, S., Hayes, L., Sahdra, B., Ferrari, M., Yap, K., & Hofmann, S. In Comprehensive Clinical Psychology: Foundations (Asmundson, Ed.).
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2020 · Chapter
Building a process-based diagnostic system: An extended evolutionary approach
Hayes, S. C., Hofmann, S. G., & Ciarrochi, J. In Beyond the DSM: Toward a Process-based Alternative for Diagnosis and Mental Health Treatment. Context Press.
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2020 · Chapter
Creating an alternative to syndromal diagnosis: Needed features of processes of change and the models that organize them
Hayes, S., Hofmann, S., & Ciarrochi, J. In Beyond the DSM. Context Press.
Shows how different approaches (e.g., DNA-V, hexaflex) map onto the common Extended Evolutionary Meta-Model.
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2022 · Chapter
Letting go, creating meaning: The role of Acceptance and Commitment Therapy in helping people confront existential concerns and lead a vital life
Ciarrochi, J., Hayes, L., Quinlan, G., Sahdra, B., Fraser, M., & Yap, K. (2022). In R. G. Menzies, R. E. Menzies, & G. A. Dingle (Eds.), Existential concerns and cognitive-behavioral procedures: An integrative approach to mental health. Springer Nature.
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2025 · Editorial · Special issue intro
Introduction to the special issue on process-based therapy
Ong, C. W., Hofmann, S. G., Ciarrochi, J., Menzies, R. G., & Hayes, S. C. (2025). Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science, 35, 100874. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcbs.2025.100874
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2025 · Article
Relationship between outcomes and processes in patients with chronic low back pain plus depressive symptoms: Idiographic analyses within an RCT
Sanabria-Mazo, J. P., Giné-Vázquez, I., Cristobal-Narváez, P., Suso-Ribera, C., García-Palacios, A., McCracken, L. M., Hayes, S. C., Hofmann, S. G., Ciarrochi, J., & Luciano, J. V. Psychotherapy Research, 35(6), 1001–1016.
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2025 · Article
One size does not make all happy: Idionomic links between striving for positive states and happiness in experience sampling
Sahdra, B. K., Shin, A., Fraser, M., Levin, M. E., Klimczak, K. S., Krafft, J., Hayes, S. C., Hernández, C. E., & Ciarrochi, J. (2025). Journal of Happiness Studies, 26, Article 101. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-025-00933-0
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2024 · Article
Through the extended evolutionary meta-model, and what ACT found there: ACT as a process-based therapy
Ong, C., Ciarrochi, J., Hofmann, S., Karekla, M., & Hayes, S. C. Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science.
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2024 · Article
When average isn't good enough: Identifying meaningful subgroups in clinical data
Gloster, A. T., Nadler, M., Block, V., Haller, E., Rubel, J., Benoy, C., Villanueva, J., Bader, K., Walter, M., Lang, U., Hofmann, S. G., Ciarrochi, J., & Hayes, S. C. (2024). Cognitive Therapy and Research, 48(4), 537–551. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-023-10453-x
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2024 · Article
Testing the applicability of idionomic statistics in longitudinal studies: The example of “doing what matters”
Sahdra, B. K., Ciarrochi, J., Klimczak, K. S., Krafft, J., Hayes, S. C., & Levin, M. E. (2024). Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science, 32, 100729.
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2024 · Article
The efficacy of personalized psychological interventions in adolescents: A scoping review and meta-analysis
Li, W., Gleeson, J., Fraser, M. I., Ciarrochi, J., Hofmann, S. G., Hayes, S. C., & Sahdra, B. (2024). Frontiers in Psychology, 15, 1470817. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1470817
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2024 · Article · ARIMAX example
A personalised approach to identifying important determinants of well-being
Ciarrochi, J., Sahdra, B. K., Hayes, S. C., Hofmann, S. G., Sanford, B. T., Stanton, C. E., Yap, K., Fraser, M. I., Gates, K. M., & Gloster, A. T. (2024). Cognitive Therapy and Research. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-024-10486-w
Within-person time-series analysis using i-ARIMAX to identify important processes of change within-person.
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2023 · Article
Behaving versus thinking positively: Benefits of cognitive reappraisal contingent on basic psychological needs
Brockman, R., Ciarrochi, J., Parker, P., & Kashdan, T. Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science, 120–125.
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2023 · Article
The compassion balance: Self- and other-compassion for optimal well-being
Sahdra, B., Ciarrochi, J., Fraser, M., Yap, K., Haller, E., Hayes, S., Hofmann, S., & Gloster, A. Mindfulness.
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2023 · Article
The idionomic future of cognitive behavioral therapy: What stands out from criticisms of ACT development
Hayes, S. C., Hofmann, S. G., & Ciarrochi, J. (2023). Behavior Therapy. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2023.07.005
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2022 · Article
Embracing the complexity of our inner worlds: Dynamics of self-compassion and self-criticism
Ferrari, M., Ciarrochi, J., Sahdra, B., & Hayes, S. C. Mindfulness.
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2022 · Article
Evolving an idionomic approach to processes of change: Towards a unified personalized science of human improvement
Hayes, S. C., Ciarrochi, J., Hofmann, S. G., Chin, F., & Sahdra, B. Behaviour Research and Therapy.
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2020 · Article
A process-based approach to psychological diagnosis and treatment: The extended evolutionary model
Hayes, S. C., Hofmann, S. G., & Ciarrochi, J. Clinical Psychology Review, 82.
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2021 · Commentary
The coming revolution in intervention science: From standardized protocols to personalized processes
Ciarrochi, J. World Psychiatry, 20, 385–386.
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2017 · Article
Emotion regulation strategies in daily life: Mindfulness, cognitive reappraisal and emotion suppression
Brockman, R., Ciarrochi, J., Parker, P., & Kashdan, T. (2017). Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 46(2), 91–113.
Illustrates within-person variability of common processes (e.g., emotion regulation). The effectiveness of any strategy is not universal — it depends on the individual.
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2022 · Article
Toward empirical process-based case conceptualization: An idionomic network examination of the PBAT
Sanford, B. T., Ciarrochi, J., Hofmann, S. G., Gates, K. M., & Hayes, S. C. Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science.
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2022 · Article
Developing an item pool to assess processes of change in psychological interventions: The PBAT
Ciarrochi, J., Sahdra, B., Hofmann, S., & Hayes, S. C. Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science, 23, 200–213.
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2024 · Article
A network control theory of dynamic systems approach to personalize therapy
Hofmann, S. G. (2024). Behavior Therapy. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2024.07.005
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